Joseph Fielding Smith's Evolving Views on Race: The Odyssey of a Mormon Apostle-President

In 1963, Joseph Henderson, a non-Mormon from New York, wrote pointed letter to LDS Church apostle Fielding Smith asking him about the racial teachings of Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints.2 The triggered sharp response Smith, who informed his interrogator that he was “getting little fed up on idea so many people think I am responsible for Negro not holding priesthood.”3 It is easy see why Henderson held Mormon priesthood ban, which also restricted Black temple access. had authored several books defending ban and Church's most aggressive leader condemning intellectuals criticized it. saw himself as guardian orthodoxy, just matters race lineage but issues like evolution doctrinal exegesis.4 Yet over course Smith's long ministry, especially during last decade life, began envision more inclusive persons African ancestry. He took dramatic steps both convert retain Saints. less change in how read scripture turbulent times lived. civil rights movement—and critically own awareness affected members—convinced reimagine place them within Church. Born 1876 what then Utah Territory, came royal stock. grandnephew founder grandson high-ranking Hyrum son president F. cousin, brother, or relative other apostles, including leaders Reorganized Latter Day Saints (today Community Christ). unique spent virtually all adult life highest councils Though lacked formal training higher education, one prolific writers twentieth century, authoring scores articles that, two recent explained, “helped educate generations history doctrine Church.”5Called an 1910 at age thirty-four, served number capacities Church, Assistant Historian, Genealogical Society, Salt Lake Temple, Quorum Twelve Apostles, First Presidency counselor, president.6 Like Saints, received patriarchal blessing—a special bestowment by patriarch—that guided shaped ministry.7 blessing 1913 thirty-seven, three years after ordained Council second-highest governing body next Presidency. patriarch promised would “always be possession spirit revelation” “counsels will considered conservative wise.”8 proved prophetic, vigorous defense sixty-two officer marked commitment willingness defend revelatory divine.Although first discussed 1924 article published magazine, Improvement Era, spirited it occurred 1931 when Way Perfection.9 successful publishing ventures, second only Essentials History (1922) perhaps Teachings Prophet (1938).10The Perfection went through eighteen reprint editions sold tens thousands copies, amassing royalties even death 1972. Published English, German, Dutch, French, Portuguese, Danish, Finish, Japanese, did go out print until authorities removed hard copy publication 1990 Amazon Kindle edition 2018.11 book manual Sunday School genealogy, reflective close association with Society Utah. approved it, quickly became authoritative statement teachings.12Smith time were unsettled Americans general struggled define race.13 Although early taught bore mark divine curse—that they merited black skin their sinful conduct premortal life—these raised questions than answers. Since founding 1830, offered variety conflicting statements people, undoubtedly influenced culture slavery As scholarship attests, could determine degree should able participate rituals.14 produced along Bible, later canonized standard works, yet these scriptures largely silent spiritual destiny descendants. Correspondingly, Book Doctrine Covenants—two essential (the Pearl Great Price)—had much say Lamanites American Indians, privileging “redemption whiteness.”15 By contrast, Bible—specifically Genesis chapter 4—discussed “mark” God placed Cain, apostles equated dark skin, designating unfit hold priesthood. proof text Abraham 3 Price, hierarchy interpreted mean members disqualified sacred rituals because committed some alleged misdeed sin before born.16Church arrived conclusions gradually nineteenth century. There no evidence rituals. fact, records indicate least handful men been tenure prophet.17 Some blessings, pronounced provided roadmap eternal salvation, participated important rituals, church missions, presided congregations. Saint women enjoyed privileges too. They blessings rituals.18However, status changed dramatically 1844. ensuing years, successors developed theology marginalized people. 1845, Orson Hyde link moral impurity, declaring neutral “war heaven,” prompted “in accursed Canaan; hence negro race.” 1847, Parley P. Pratt advanced argument further, insisting cursed priesthood.19 1852, migrated west Basin, territorial governor prophet Brigham Young reversed ordination instituted barring full access announced “one-drop” rule heritage, guidelines do it.20This rudderless policy left Young's lurch, never specified detect drop blood. At time, there ways bloodlines reliable discern lineage. Light-skinned biracial ancestry difficult identify. Their mixed-race presented additional challenges grappled uncertainty knowing ancestry.21The rule, moreover, posed another significant challenge leaders: negated African, European, Native cohabitation colonial North America. These multiracial peoples shared continent hundreds mixing marrying, complicated policing made certain truly “pure From convergence free unfree arose new identities resulting “mulattoes,” “mestizos,” “mustees,” “mixed bloods.”22 Determining therefore ubiquitous Given inadequate tools police boundaries, precisely where light-skinned fit into conception soteriology. 1907, called rationales “tradition” “the opinion” earlier leaders.23 Here echoed view Lorenzo Snow, noted 1900 know whether curse Cain teaching originated Young. if this product revelation “was giving personal views told Joseph.” Likewise, 1912, counselors Anthon H. Lund Charles W. Penrose confessed any “revelation, ancient modern” supporting “negroes” “neutral clearly odds Hyde's sixty earlier.24In decades continued express unease justified its race. 1918, Whitney “Ham's sin, brought upon Canaan . may fully known; were,” cautioned, “there still remain unsolved problem punishment whole offense ancestors.” while found existence “unsolved,” Melvin J. Ballard sermonized 1922 “it said—and have reason dispute it—that act life.”25In event, labeling hardly reassuring wanted definitive answers barred temple. When 1931, knew flux, functioning speculative revealed doctrine. same clear-cut affirming assert alleged” Smith. father, acting capacity president, frank admitting written “show negroes are ineligible priesthood.” Nevertheless, opined Smith.”26The ban's origins troubled throughout particularly dealing fate Abel's posterity. concerned Saint, “Abel cut-off without posterity according eternity worthy blessings.” further claimed “until does, seed expressed skepticism answer, exasperatingly issue “comes back me constantly plague.”27 revealing letter, member asked explain “why has cannot heard different reasons can find true one.” answer question satisfactorily admitted reply “information we regarding limited.”28Particularly challenging entertained visited missions. missionary Brazil point-blank, “Where denying Priesthood Cain?” stumbled.29 couldn't neither nor colleagues ever one. leaders, 1921, then-apostle David O. McKay embarked mission tour South Pacific encountered “worthy man” promptly Heber Grant ordain man priesthood, said no. “David, sympathetic you are, Lord gives us matter, shall maintain church.”30 Other experienced similar challenges, lower-level leaders. 1970s, Lester Bush, medical doctor, compiled exhaustive documentary record teachings, included dozens letters local members, lineage, restriction. Many date 1910s 1920s expanded United States abroad.31This ambiguity write Perfection. sought quell doubts but, importantly, create theological framework denial. Among controversial chapters include 15 (“The Seed Cain”) 16 After Flood”). outlined based interpretation scripture, study theories embrace secular theories—British Israelism eugenics—prominent lifetime.32During quarter immersed British ideology—a Protestant privileged Anglo-Saxons God's “favored lineage.” For “lost tribes Israel” “believing blood,” meaning likely groups races outside house Israel. manuals publications views. Such reflected concepts half century earlier.33 publications, chosen status. Unlike deemed excluded Abrahamic covenant, white derived “covenant To end, believed preserve protect “racial purity” lest miscegenation taint bloodlines.34Smith fellow imbibed ideas, looked eugenics privilege hierarchies Americans, embraced eugenics—the faddish (and erroneous) science improve human breeding, good hygiene, morals.35 “A very great deal expected movement,” General Authority B. Roberts stated 1916.36 uniquely qualified polygamists virtuous Christians, Mormons covenant child-rearing righteous living. This required shun birth control proper parenting practices consistent families. If failed obligation, reasoned, “more race” overwhelmed “lower classes” European immigrants flocking following Civil War. failure reproduce lead “race suicide” putting “themselves kind mortal existence.”37All ideas culminated Perfection, affirmed belief hierarchies. insisted “negroes,” “less favored lineage,” “holy Furthermore, argued valiance” Israel apply descendants Ephraim lineages.” Only “choice spirits” “better grade nations” enjoy liturgical rites. But stop there: “inferior race,” forever doomed servants Less significant, posited restriction despite absence fact uncle's prophet.38The seminal work. systemized teachings. Several colleagues, impressed thoroughness clear, conversational writing style, recommended ban; fielded queries. addition, cited manuals, prophets sermons faith's semiannual conference City.39 Most notably, incorporated 1935. Accompanying fifty-three-page “Topical Outline,” section “Study Thoughts.” students ponder passages people—in specific, “How descended Ham?” “Name produced.” And dramatic, “Discuss truth text, p. 101, ‘became father inferior race.’”40Perhaps however, basis 1949, enshrined hypothesis. cleared provenance declared unequivocally “direct commandment founded days organization.”41 Presidency's bold statement, ignored limited congregation.Smith followed defined reaffirmed Along Doctrines Salvation (1954–1956) Answers Gospel Questions (1957–1966) established foremost authority ban.42 Because turned settle involving 1951, example, Stephen L. Richards Reuben Clark, hierarchy, inhabitants Melanesian Micronesian Islands” Cain.” thoroughly researching matter Encyclopedia Britannica, know.43 Similarly, University Ernest Wilkinson guidance prospective student “one-eighth negroid” enroll Church-owned school. “What your advice me?” asked. “Should try discourage coming Provo?” Just patriarchs pronounce guidance. declare Cain.44As hardline circulated teachers Educational System challenged him. Lowell Bennion, highly-regarded religion instructor Institute Religion, him, others System. During memorable moment 1954, Bennion “openly questioned” session attended seminary institute University. such criticisms, deciding sufficiently orthodox go. 1962, colleague T. Edgar Lyon, critic ousted well-publicized purge Religion.45 clashed repeatedly recorded experience diary: “I protest release Drs. Lyon years. interviewed reached conclusion order.”46Other likewise incurred wrath. Sterling McMurrin, liberal philosopher Utah, emerged vocal critic. since 1950s, culminating McKay's vow McMurrin excommunicate outspoken philosopher.47 ire toward inflection point when, 1968, delivered forceful speech City NAACP condemned “crude,” “superstitious,” “harmful church.” chided maintaining racist predicted lift leave. extended media coverage States, causing embarrassment already under fire ban.48 reading McMurrin's address, agitated vowed again.49 strong support intellectual community. Not one-time Commissioner Education John Kennedy administration, author acclaimed theology, friends then–Church counselor Hugh Brown.50More critically, passionate relationship Brown, denounced “curse Cain” ideology “a bunch gobbley gook.”51 ban. keep Brown proposed name vigorously protested Brown's repeated attempts attempt 1961 appointed deeply headquarters questioning supported granting Nigerians Aaronic 1960s. hardliners scuttled move, fearing ordaining lesser prompt want Melchizedek Priesthood, so-called “higher priesthood.”52Establishing Africa heated discussions priesthood.53 confided “is having [more] constant serious attention think, Church.”54 Also year, discussing intently. “Almost man,” agreed take place. President must come, didn't when.” reiterated “Negro greatest faced plural marriage.”55The escalated tension between violated unspoken quorum reaching disclose sensitive deliberations lifting “We midst survey [now] looking possibility Negroes,” explained York Times reporter Wallace Turner. counselor's admission Turner “The top leadership seriously considering abandonment historic discrimination against Negroes.”56 Senior stunned private conversations Turner, confronted demanding explanation. Embarrassed, “misquoted,” public relations employee interview confirmed accuracy “quotes appeared story words spoken Mr. Brown.”57Blindsided story, countered Brown. interview, October few months Times, senior bluntly achieve Church.” position previous year “No consideration being given now changing permit attain status.”58 Meanwhile, tussled pushback Twelve. post–World War II exposing injustices brutal murder Emmett Till, arrest activist Rosa Parks, nonviolent marches Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. supporters laser-like focus.59 promoted unabashedly community 1930s 1940s, hushed whispers 1950s 1960s attuned Jim Crow mid-1960s, instance, dropped Portuguese book.60 denied permission BYU professor James R. Clark publish 1949 multivolume Messages Presidency, refused address Eldred G. “because present turmoil question.” finally, instructed refrain speaking valiant expressions media. Our “clear, positive, brief.”61Smith certainly immune changes swirling around broader society. rethink petitioned rights, heart.62 Sensitive criticism aging News More instructively, champion version equality lineage—this Mark E. Petersen, Ezra Taft Benson, opposing time.63 Questions, equal “to ‘life, liberty, pursuit happiness,’” adding “should education” choose employment, business field make lives happy possible interference